Leading–Edge Portable Biosensors and Biomarkers Development for Raman Biospectroscopy and Imaging in Cancer Diagnosis

Alireza Heidari, Zahra Torfeh, Sophia Iorgulescu, Olivia Robinson, Lin Hu, Charlotte Vauclin, Ntalie Schiltz, Scarlett Sondermann, Lucy MacLennan, Julia Smith, Lydia Williamson

 
International Journal of Biomedicine. 2022;12(4):493-505.
DOI: 10.21103/Article12(4)_RA1
Originally published December 5, 2022

Abstract: 

Raman spectroscopy is an important method for identifying molecules, which is widely used in determining the chemical and structural characteristics of various substances. Many materials have a special Raman spectrum, so that this phenomenon has turned the Raman device into an efficient tool for studying the structural and chemical properties of molecules. Since it is possible to obtain detailed information about the chemical and structural characteristics of biological compounds from Raman spectroscopy, the use of this method is rapidly expanding in the field of life sciences, especially in biological and medical studies. There is no need for special, time–consuming and expensive preparations in the study of materials with the help of a Raman device. In the protein Raman spectrum, distinct bands arise from the vibrational states of the peptide backbone and amino acid side chains. Therefore, based on the position and intensity of the protein's Raman spectrum, it is possible to obtain valuable information about its second, third, and fourth structures. Also, the Raman spectrum of the protein contains information about the orientation and surrounding environment of the amino acid side chains. The correct formation of the disulfide bond in the protein structure can also be studied with the help of the Raman device. In general, the Raman spectrum of proteins contains multiple discrete bands that represent the vibrational states of the molecule and is used as a selective fingerprint to accurately determine the three–dimensional structure of proteins, intramolecular dynamics, and intermolecular interactions.

Schematic of leading–edge portable biosensors and biomarkers development for Raman biospectroscopy and imaging in cancer diagnosis.

Keywords: 
biosensors • biomarkers • Raman biospectroscopy • imaging • cancer • diagnosis
References: 

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79. Heidari A. Improving the Performance of Nano–Endofullerenes in Polyaniline Nanostructure–Based Biosensors by Covering Californium Colloidal Nanoparticles with Multi–Walled Carbon Nanotubes. Journal of Advances in Nanomaterials. 2018;3(1):1–28.
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86. Heidari A. C70–Carboxyfullerenes Nano Molecules Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(3):1–7.
87. Heidari A. The Effect of Temperature on Cadmium Oxide (CdO) Nanoparticles Produced by Synchrotron Radiation in the Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors. International Journal of Advanced Chemistry. 2018;6(2):140–156.
88. Heidari A. A Clinical and Molecular Pathology Investigation of Correlation Spectroscopy (COSY), Exclusive Correlation Spectroscopy (ECOSY), Total Correlation Spectroscopy (TOCSY), Heteronuclear Single–Quantum Correlation Spectroscopy (HSQC) and Heteronuclear Multiple–Bond Correlation Spectroscopy (HMBC) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations Using Cyclotron versus Synchrotron, Synchrocyclotron and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) for Delivery of Proton and Helium Ion (Charged Particle) Beams for Oncology Radiotherapy. European Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology. 2018;5(7):414–426.
89. Heidari A. Nano Molecules Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations. J Oncol Res. 2018;1(1):1–20.
90. Heidari A. Use of Molecular Enzymes in the Treatment of Chronic Disorders. Canc Oncol Open Access J. 2018;1(1):12–15.
91. Heidari A. Vibrational Biospectroscopic Study and Chemical Structure Analysis of Unsaturated Polyamides Nanoparticles as Anti–Cancer Polymeric Nanomedicines Using Synchrotron Radiation. International Journal of Advanced Chemistry. 2018;6(2):167–189.
92. Heidari A. Adamantane, Irene, Naftazone and Pyridine–Enhanced Precatalyst Preparation Stabilization and Initiation (PEPPSI) Nano Molecules. Madridge J Nov Drug Res. 2018;2(1):61–67.
93. Heidari A. Heteronuclear Single–Quantum Correlation Spectroscopy (HSQC) and Heteronuclear Multiple–Bond Correlation Spectroscopy (HMBC) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues with the Passage of Time under Synchrotron Radiation. Madridge J Nov Drug Res. 2018;2(1):68–74.
94. Heidari A. R. Gobato, A Novel Approach to Reduce Toxicities and to Improve Bioavailabilities of DNA/RNA of Human Cancer Cells–Containing Cocaine (Coke), Lysergide (Lysergic Acid Diethyl Amide or LSD), Δ⁹–Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) [(–)–trans–Δ⁹–Tetrahydrocannabinol], Theobromine (Xantheose), Caffeine, Aspartame (APM) (NutraSweet) and Zidovudine (ZDV) Azidothymidine (AZT). as Anti–Cancer Nano Drugs by Coassembly of Dual Anti–Cancer Nano Drugs to Inhibit DNA/RNA of Human Cancer Cells Drug Resistance. Parana Journal of Science and Education (PJSE). 2018;4(6):1–17.
95. Heidari A, Gobato R. Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) and Ultraviolet–Visible (UV–Vis) Spectroscopy Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues with the Passage of Time under Synchrotron Radiation. Parana Journal of Science and Education (PJSE). 2018;4(6):18–33.
96. Gobato R, Heidari A, Mitra A. The Creation of C13H20BeLi2SeSi. The Proposal of a Bio–Inorganic Molecule, Using Ab Initio Methods for the Genesis of a Nano Membrane. Arc Org Inorg Chem Sci. 2018;3(4) AOICS.MS.ID.000167.
97. Gobato R, Heidari A. Using the Quantum Chemistry for Genesis of a Nano Biomembrane with a Combination of the Elements Be, Li, Se, Si, C and H. J Nanomed Res. 2018;7(4):241‒252.
98. Heidari A. Bastadins and Bastaranes–Enhanced Precatalyst Preparation Stabilization and Initiation (EPPSI) Nano Molecules. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(4):1–7.
99. Heidari A. Fucitol, Pterodactyladiene, DEAD or DEADCAT (DiEthyl AzoDiCArboxylaTe), Skatole, the NanoPutians, Thebacon, Pikachurin, Tie Fighter, Spermidine and Mirasorvone Nano Molecules Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(4):1–8.
100. Dadvar E, Heidari A. A Review on Separation Techniques of Graphene Oxide (GO)/Base on Hybrid Polymer Membranes for Eradication of Dyes and Oil Compounds: Recent Progress in Graphene Oxide (GO)/Base on Polymer Membranes–Related Nanotechnologies. Clin Med Rev Case Rep. 2018;5:228.
101. Heidari A, Gobato R. First–Time Simulation of Deoxyuridine Monophosphate (dUMP) (Deoxyuridylic Acid or Deoxyuridylate) and Vomitoxin (Deoxynivalenol (DON)) ((3α,7α)–3,7,15–Trihydroxy–12,13–Epoxytrichothec–9–En–8–One)–Enhanced Precatalyst Preparation Stabilization and Initiation (EPPSI) Nano Molecules Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations. Parana Journal of Science and Education (PJSE). 2018;4(6):46–67.
102. Heidari A. Buckminsterfullerene (Fullerene), Bullvalene, Dickite and Josiphos Ligands Nano Molecules Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Hematology and Thromboembolic Diseases Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(4):1–7.
103. Heidari A. Fluctuation X–Ray Scattering (FXS) and Wide–Angle X–Ray Scattering (WAXS) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues under Synchrotron Radiation. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(4):1–7.
104. Heidari A. A Novel Approach to Correlation Spectroscopy (COSY), Exclusive Correlation Spectroscopy (ECOSY), Total Correlation Spectroscopy (TOCSY), Incredible Natural–Abundance Double–Quantum Transfer Experiment (INADEQUATE), Heteronuclear Single–Quantum Correlation Spectroscopy (HSQC), Heteronuclear Multiple–Bond Correlation Spectroscopy (HMBC), Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (NOESY) and Rotating Frame Nuclear Overhauser Effect Spectroscopy (ROESY) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues under Synchrotron Radiation. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(5):1–9.
105. Heidari A. Terphenyl–Based Reversible Receptor with Rhodamine, Rhodamine–Based Molecular Probe, Rhodamine–Based Using the Spirolactam Ring Opening, Rhodamine B with Ferrocene Substituent, Calix4.Arene–Based Receptor, Thioether + Aniline–Derived Ligand Framework Linked to a Fluorescein Platform, Mercuryfluor–1 (Flourescent Probe), N,N’–Dibenzyl–1,4,10,13–Tetraraoxa–7,16–Diazacyclooctadecane and Terphenyl–Based Reversible Receptor with Pyrene and Quinoline as the Fluorophores–Enhanced Precatalyst Preparation Stabilization and Initiation (EPPSI) Nano Molecules. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(5):1–9.
106. Heidari A. Small–Angle X–Ray Scattering (SAXS), Ultra–Small Angle X–Ray Scattering (USAXS), Fluctuation X–Ray Scattering (FXS), Wide–Angle X–Ray Scattering (WAXS), Grazing–Incidence Small–Angle X–Ray Scattering (GISAXS), Grazing–Incidence Wide–Angle X–Ray Scattering (GIWAXS), Small–Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS), Grazing–Incidence Small–Angle Neutron Scattering (GISANS), X–Ray Diffraction (XRD), Powder X–Ray Diffraction (PXRD), Wide–Angle X–Ray Diffraction (WAXD), Grazing– Incidence X–Ray Diffraction (GIXD) and Energy–Dispersive X–Ray Diffraction (EDXRD) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues under Synchrotron Radiation. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(5):1–10.
107. Heidari A. Nuclear Resonant Inelastic X–Ray Scattering Spectroscopy (NRIXSS) and Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopy (NRVS) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues under Synchrotron Radiation. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(5):1–7.
108. Heidari A. Small–Angle X–Ray Scattering (SAXS) and Ultra–Small Angle X–Ray Scattering (USAXS) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues under Synchrotron Radiation. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(5):1–7.
109. Heidari A. Curious Chloride (CmCl3) and Titanic Chloride (TiCl4)–Enhanced Precatalyst Preparation Stabilization and Initiation (EPPSI) Nano Molecules for Cancer Treatment and Cellular Therapeutics. J. Cancer Research and Therapeutic Interventions. 2018;1(1):01–10.
110. Gobato R, Gobato MRR, Heidari A. A. Mitra, Spectroscopy and Dipole Moment of the Molecule C13H20BeLi2SeSi via Quantum Chemistry Using Ab Initio, Hartree–Fock Method in the Base Set CC–pVTZ and 6–311G**(3df, 3pd). Arc Org Inorg Chem Sci. 2018;3(5):402–409.
111. Heidari A. C60 and C70–Encapsulating Carbon Nanotubes Incorporation into the Nano Polymeric Matrix (NPM) by Immersion of the Nano Polymeric Modified Electrode (NPME) as Molecular Enzymes and Drug Targets for Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors Treatment under Synchrotron and Synchrocyclotron Radiations. Integr Mol Med. 2018;5(3): 1–8.
112. Heidari A. Two–Dimensional (2D) 1H or Proton NMR, 13C NMR, 15N NMR and 31P NMR Spectroscopy Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues under Synchrotron Radiation with the Passage of Time. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(6):1–8.
113. Heidari A. FT–Raman Spectroscopy, Coherent Anti–Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS) and Raman Optical Activity Spectroscopy (ROAS) Comparative Study on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells and Tissues with the Passage of Time under Synchrotron Radiation. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(6):1–8.
114. Heidari A. A Modern and Comprehensive Investigation of Inelastic Electron Tunneling Spectroscopy (IETS) and Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy on Malignant and Benign Human Cancer Cells, Tissues and Tumors through Optimizing Synchrotron Microbeam Radiotherapy for Human Cancer Treatments and Diagnostics: An Experimental Biospectroscopic Comparative Study. Glob Imaging Insights. 2018;3(6):1–8.

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Received October 20, 2022.
Accepted November 2, 2022.
©2022 International Medical Research and Development Corporation.